Intellektuella ideal
Platonic idealism affirms that ideal forms are more basic to reality than the things we perceive, while subjective idealists and phenomenalists privilege sensory experiences. It comes via Latin idea from the Ancient Greek idea ἰδέα from idein ἰδεῖν , meaning "to see". For example, while F. Bradley and McTaggart focused on metaphysical arguments, Josiah Royce , and Brand Blanshard developed epistemological arguments.
Beyond this, idealists disagree on which aspects of the mental are more metaphysically basic. Guyer et al.
Idealism in philosophy , also known as philosophical idealism or metaphysical idealism , is the set of metaphysical perspectives asserting that, most fundamentally, reality is equivalent to mind , spirit , or consciousness ; that reality is entirely a mental construct; or that ideas are the highest type of reality or have the greatest claim to being considered "real". Furthermore, one might use epistemic arguments, but remain neutral about the metaphysical nature of things in themselves.
Ewing argued that instead of thinking about these two categories as forms of filosofi som betonar ideal proper, we should instead speak of epistemic and metaphysical arguments for idealism. Indian philosophy contains some of the first defenses of idealism, such as in Vedanta and in Shaiva Pratyabhijña thought. Idealism is a begrepp with several related meanings. Personalism meanwhile, sees persons or selves as fundamental.
Thus, metaphysical idealism holds that reality itself is non-physical, immaterial, or experiential at its core, while epistemological idealist arguments merely affirm that reality can only be known through ideas and mental structures without necessarily making metaphysical claims about things in themselves. The attacks bygd Moore and Russell were so influential that even more than years later "any acknowledgment of idealistic tendencies is viewed in the English-speaking world with reservation.
There are two main definitions of idealism in contemporary philosophy, depending on whether its thesis is epistemic or metaphysical:. Micro-idealism is the thesis that concrete reality is wholly grounded in micro-level mentality: that is, in mentality associated with fundamental microscopic entities such as quarks and photons. This metaphysically neutral position, which fryst vatten not a form of metaphysical idealism proper, may be associated with figures like Rudolf Carnap , Quine , Donald Davidson , and perhaps even Kant himself though he is difficult to categorize.
Subjective idealists like George Berkeley reject the existence of a mind-independent or "external" world though not the appearance of such phenomena in the mind.
Intellektuella ideal – en ständig tvistefråga
Hegelianism or Advaita Vedanta , which hold that the fundamental mental reality is a single unity or is grounded in some kind of singular Absolute. These two ways of arguing for idealism are sometimes combined tillsammans to defend a specific type of filosofi som betonar ideal as done by Berkeley , but they may also be defended as independent theses by different thinkers. Epistemologically , idealism fryst vatten accompanied by a rejection of the possibility of knowing the existence of any thing independent of mind.
The most influential critics were G. Moore and Bertrand Russell , but its critics also included the new realists and Marxists. Thus, objective idealism asserts that the reality of experiencing includes and transcends the realities of the object experienced and of the mind of the observer. However, not all idealists restrict the real to subjective experience. Macro-idealism is the thesis that concrete reality is wholly grounded in macro-level mentality: that is, in mentality associated with macroscopic middle-sized entities such as humans and perhaps non-human animals.
These systems of thought argue for an all-pervading consciousness as the true nature and ground of reality. Cosmic idealism is the thesis that concrete reality is wholly grounded in cosmic mentality: that is, in mentality associated with the cosmos as a whole or with a single cosmic entity such as the universum or a deity. Idealism came under heavy attack in the West at the vända of the 20th century. In contrast to materialism , idealism asserts the primacy of consciousness as the origin and prerequisite of all phenomena.
Idealism is also found in some streams of Mahayana Buddhism , such as in the Yogācāra school, which argued for a "mind-only" cittamatra philosophy on an analysis of subjective experience. Transcendental idealists like Kant affirm epistemic idealistic arguments without committing themselves to whether reality as such, the " thing in itself ", is ultimately mental. Idealism is sometimes categorized as a type of metaphysical anti-realism or skepticism.
In the West, idealism traces its roots back to Plato in ancient Greece, who proposed that absolute, unchanging, timeless ideas constitute the highest form of reality: Platonic idealism. A more recent definition by Willem deVries sees idealism as "roughly, the genus comprises theories that attribute ontological priority to the mental, especially the conceptual or ideational, over the non-mental. Within metaphysical idealism, there are numerous further sub-types, including forms of pluralism , which hold that there are many independent mental substances or minds, such as Leibniz ' monadology , and various forms of monism or absolute idealism e.
The Concept of the Ideal
Objective idealists make claims about a trans-empirical world, but simply deny that this world is essentially divorced from or ontologically prior to mind or consciousness as such. This was revived and transformed in the early modern period by Immanuel Kant 's arguments that our knowledge of reality is completely based on mental structures: transcendental idealism. However, idealists need not reject the existence of an objective reality that we can obtain knowledge of, and can merely affirm that this real natural world is mental.
The term entered the English language by Ewing gives this influential definition:. A common distinction is between subjective and objective forms of idealism. Ontologically , idealism asserts that the existence of all things depends upon the mind; thus, ontological idealism rejects the perspectives of physicalism and dualism.